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In the Nature of Materials

  • 1 nature

    вид (в знач. тип)
    based on the nature of combustible substances and materials исходя из вида горючих веществ и материалов

    English-Russian dictionary of scientific and technical difficulties vocabulary > nature

  • 2 Wright, Frank Lloyd

    [br]
    b. 8 June 1869 Richland Center, Wisconsin, USA
    d. 9 April 1959 Phoenix, Arizona, USA
    [br]
    American architect who, in an unparalleled career spanning almost seventy years, became the most important figure on the modern architectural scene both in his own country and far further afield.
    [br]
    Wright began his career in 1887 working in the Chicago offices of Adler \& Sullivan. He conceived a great admiration for Sullivan, who was then concentrating upon large commercial projects in modern mode, producing functional yet decorative buildings which took all possible advantage of new structural methods. Wright was responsible for many of the domestic commissions.
    In 1893 Wright left the firm in order to set up practice on his own, thus initiating a career which was to develop into three distinct phases. In the first of these, up until the First World War, he was chiefly designing houses in a concept in which he envisaged "the house as a shelter". These buildings displayed his deeply held opinion that detached houses in country areas should be designed as an integral part of the landscape, a view later to be evidenced strongly in the work of modern Finnish architects. Wright's designs were called "prairie houses" because so many of them were built in the MidWest of America, which Wright described as a "prairie". These were low and spreading, with gently sloping rooflines, very plain and clean lined, built of traditional materials in warm rural colours, blending softly into their settings. Typical was W.W.Willit's house of 1902 in Highland Park, Illinois.
    In the second phase of his career Wright began to build more extensively in modern materials, utilizing advanced means of construction. A notable example was his remarkable Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, carefully designed and built in 1916–22 (now demolished), with special foundations and structure to withstand (successfully) strong earthquake tremors. He also became interested in the possibilities of reinforced concrete; in 1906 he built his church at Oak Park, Illinois, entirely of this material. In the 1920s, in California, he abandoned his use of traditional materials for house building in favour of precast concrete blocks, which were intended to provide an "organic" continuity between structure and decorative surfacing. In his continued exploration of the possibilities of concrete as a building material, he created the dramatic concept of'Falling Water', a house built in 1935–7 at Bear Run in Pennsylvania in which he projected massive reinforced-concrete terraces cantilevered from a cliff over a waterfall in the woodlands. In the later 1930s an extraordinary run of original concepts came from Wright, then nearing 70 years of age, ranging from his own winter residence and studio, Taliesin West in Arizona, to the administration block for Johnson Wax (1936–9) in Racine, Wisconsin, where the main interior ceiling was supported by Minoan-style, inversely tapered concrete columns rising to spreading circular capitals which contained lighting tubes of Pyrex glass.
    Frank Lloyd Wright continued to work until four days before his death at the age of 91. One of his most important and certainly controversial commissions was the Solomon R.Guggenheim Museum in New York. This had been proposed in 1943 but was not finally built until 1956–9; in this striking design the museum's exhibition areas are ranged along a gradually mounting spiral ramp lit effectively from above. Controversy stemmed from the unusual and original design of exterior banding and interior descending spiral for wall-display of paintings: some critics strongly approved, while others, equally strongly, did not.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    RIBA Royal Gold Medal 1941.
    Bibliography
    1945, An Autobiography, Faber \& Faber.
    Further Reading
    E.Kaufmann (ed.), 1957, Frank Lloyd Wright: an American Architect, New York: Horizon Press.
    H.Russell Hitchcock, 1973, In the Nature of Materials, New York: Da Capo.
    T.A.Heinz, 1982, Frank Lloyd Wright, New York: St Martin's.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Wright, Frank Lloyd

  • 3 Philosophy

       And what I believe to be more important here is that I find in myself an infinity of ideas of certain things which cannot be assumed to be pure nothingness, even though they may have perhaps no existence outside of my thought. These things are not figments of my imagination, even though it is within my power to think of them or not to think of them; on the contrary, they have their own true and immutable natures. Thus, for example, when I imagine a triangle, even though there may perhaps be no such figure anywhere in the world outside of my thought, nor ever have been, nevertheless the figure cannot help having a certain determinate nature... or essence, which is immutable and eternal, which I have not invented and which does not in any way depend upon my mind. (Descartes, 1951, p. 61)
       Let us console ourselves for not knowing the possible connections between a spider and the rings of Saturn, and continue to examine what is within our reach. (Voltaire, 1961, p. 144)
       As modern physics started with the Newtonian revolution, so modern philosophy starts with what one might call the Cartesian Catastrophe. The catastrophe consisted in the splitting up of the world into the realms of matter and mind, and the identification of "mind" with conscious thinking. The result of this identification was the shallow rationalism of l'esprit Cartesien, and an impoverishment of psychology which it took three centuries to remedy even in part. (Koestler, 1964, p. 148)
       It has been made of late a reproach against natural philosophy that it has struck out on a path of its own, and has separated itself more and more widely from the other sciences which are united by common philological and historical studies. The opposition has, in fact, been long apparent, and seems to me to have grown up mainly under the influence of the Hegelian philosophy, or, at any rate, to have been brought out into more distinct relief by that philosophy.... The sole object of Kant's "Critical Philosophy" was to test the sources and the authority of our knowledge, and to fix a definite scope and standard for the researches of philosophy, as compared with other sciences.... [But Hegel's] "Philosophy of Identity" was bolder. It started with the hypothesis that not only spiritual phenomena, but even the actual world-nature, that is, and man-were the result of an act of thought on the part of a creative mind, similar, it was supposed, in kind to the human mind.... The philosophers accused the scientific men of narrowness; the scientific men retorted that the philosophers were crazy. And so it came about that men of science began to lay some stress on the banishment of all philosophic influences from their work; while some of them, including men of the greatest acuteness, went so far as to condemn philosophy altogether, not merely as useless, but as mischievous dreaming. Thus, it must be confessed, not only were the illegitimate pretensions of the Hegelian system to subordinate to itself all other studies rejected, but no regard was paid to the rightful claims of philosophy, that is, the criticism of the sources of cognition, and the definition of the functions of the intellect. (Helmholz, quoted in Dampier, 1966, pp. 291-292)
       Philosophy remains true to its classical tradition by renouncing it. (Habermas, 1972, p. 317)
       I have not attempted... to put forward any grand view of the nature of philosophy; nor do I have any such grand view to put forth if I would. It will be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the history of "howlers" and progress in philosophy as the debunking of howlers. It will also be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the enterprise of putting forward a priori truths about the world.... I see philosophy as a field which has certain central questions, for example, the relation between thought and reality.... It seems obvious that in dealing with these questions philosophers have formulated rival research programs, that they have put forward general hypotheses, and that philosophers within each major research program have modified their hypotheses by trial and error, even if they sometimes refuse to admit that that is what they are doing. To that extent philosophy is a "science." To argue about whether philosophy is a science in any more serious sense seems to me to be hardly a useful occupation.... It does not seem to me important to decide whether science is philosophy or philosophy is science as long as one has a conception of both that makes both essential to a responsible view of the world and of man's place in it. (Putnam, 1975, p. xvii)
       What can philosophy contribute to solving the problem of the relation [of] mind to body? Twenty years ago, many English-speaking philosophers would have answered: "Nothing beyond an analysis of the various mental concepts." If we seek knowledge of things, they thought, it is to science that we must turn. Philosophy can only cast light upon our concepts of those things.
       This retreat from things to concepts was not undertaken lightly. Ever since the seventeenth century, the great intellectual fact of our culture has been the incredible expansion of knowledge both in the natural and in the rational sciences (mathematics, logic).
       The success of science created a crisis in philosophy. What was there for philosophy to do? Hume had already perceived the problem in some degree, and so surely did Kant, but it was not until the twentieth century, with the Vienna Circle and with Wittgenstein, that the difficulty began to weigh heavily. Wittgenstein took the view that philosophy could do no more than strive to undo the intellectual knots it itself had tied, so achieving intellectual release, and even a certain illumination, but no knowledge. A little later, and more optimistically, Ryle saw a positive, if reduced role, for philosophy in mapping the "logical geography" of our concepts: how they stood to each other and how they were to be analyzed....
       Since that time, however, philosophers in the "analytic" tradition have swung back from Wittgensteinian and even Rylean pessimism to a more traditional conception of the proper role and tasks of philosophy. Many analytic philosophers now would accept the view that the central task of philosophy is to give an account, or at least play a part in giving an account, of the most general nature of things and of man. (Armstrong, 1990, pp. 37-38)
       8) Philosophy's Evolving Engagement with Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science
       In the beginning, the nature of philosophy's engagement with artificial intelligence and cognitive science was clear enough. The new sciences of the mind were to provide the long-awaited vindication of the most potent dreams of naturalism and materialism. Mind would at last be located firmly within the natural order. We would see in detail how the most perplexing features of the mental realm could be supported by the operations of solely physical laws upon solely physical stuff. Mental causation (the power of, e.g., a belief to cause an action) would emerge as just another species of physical causation. Reasoning would be understood as a kind of automated theorem proving. And the key to both was to be the depiction of the brain as the implementation of multiple higher level programs whose task was to manipulate and transform symbols or representations: inner items with one foot in the physical (they were realized as brain states) and one in the mental (they were bearers of contents, and their physical gymnastics were cleverly designed to respect semantic relationships such as truth preservation). (A. Clark, 1996, p. 1)
       Socrates of Athens famously declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living," and his motto aptly explains the impulse to philosophize. Taking nothing for granted, philosophy probes and questions the fundamental presuppositions of every area of human inquiry.... [P]art of the job of the philosopher is to keep at a certain critical distance from current doctrines, whether in the sciences or the arts, and to examine instead how the various elements in our world-view clash, or fit together. Some philosophers have tried to incorporate the results of these inquiries into a grand synoptic view of the nature of reality and our human relationship to it. Others have mistrusted system-building, and seen their primary role as one of clarifications, or the removal of obstacles along the road to truth. But all have shared the Socratic vision of using the human intellect to challenge comfortable preconceptions, insisting that every aspect of human theory and practice be subjected to continuing critical scrutiny....
       Philosophy is, of course, part of a continuing tradition, and there is much to be gained from seeing how that tradition originated and developed. But the principal object of studying the materials in this book is not to pay homage to past genius, but to enrich one's understanding of central problems that are as pressing today as they have always been-problems about knowledge, truth and reality, the nature of the mind, the basis of right action, and the best way to live. These questions help to mark out the territory of philosophy as an academic discipline, but in a wider sense they define the human predicament itself; they will surely continue to be with us for as long as humanity endures. (Cottingham, 1996, pp. xxi-xxii)
       In his study of ancient Greek culture, The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche drew what would become a famous distinction, between the Dionysian spirit, the untamed spirit of art and creativity, and the Apollonian, that of reason and self-control. The story of Greek civilization, and all civilizations, Nietzsche implied, was the gradual victory of Apollonian man, with his desire for control over nature and himself, over Dionysian man, who survives only in myth, poetry, music, and drama. Socrates and Plato had attacked the illusions of art as unreal, and had overturned the delicate cultural balance by valuing only man's critical, rational, and controlling consciousness while denigrating his vital life instincts as irrational and base. The result of this division is "Alexandrian man," the civilized and accomplished Greek citizen of the later ancient world, who is "equipped with the greatest forces of knowledge" but in whom the wellsprings of creativity have dried up. (Herman, 1997, pp. 95-96)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Philosophy

  • 4 Mind

       It becomes, therefore, no inconsiderable part of science... to know the different operations of the mind, to separate them from each other, to class them under their proper heads, and to correct all that seeming disorder in which they lie involved when made the object of reflection and inquiry.... It cannot be doubted that the mind is endowed with several powers and faculties, that these powers are distinct from one another, and that what is really distinct to the immediate perception may be distinguished by reflection and, consequently, that there is a truth and falsehood which lie not beyond the compass of human understanding. (Hume, 1955, p. 22)
       Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white Paper, void of all Characters, without any Ideas: How comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store, which the busy and boundless Fancy of Man has painted on it, with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of Reason and Knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from Experience. (Locke, quoted in Herrnstein & Boring, 1965, p. 584)
       The kind of logic in mythical thought is as rigorous as that of modern science, and... the difference lies, not in the quality of the intellectual process, but in the nature of things to which it is applied.... Man has always been thinking equally well; the improvement lies, not in an alleged progress of man's mind, but in the discovery of new areas to which it may apply its unchanged and unchanging powers. (Leґvi-Strauss, 1963, p. 230)
       MIND. A mysterious form of matter secreted by the brain. Its chief activity consists in the endeavor to ascertain its own nature, the futility of the attempt being due to the fact that it has nothing but itself to know itself with. (Bierce, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 55)
       [Philosophy] understands the foundations of knowledge and it finds these foundations in a study of man-as-knower, of the "mental processes" or the "activity of representation" which make knowledge possible. To know is to represent accurately what is outside the mind, so to understand the possibility and nature of knowledge is to understand the way in which the mind is able to construct such representation.... We owe the notion of a "theory of knowledge" based on an understanding of "mental processes" to the seventeenth century, and especially to Locke. We owe the notion of "the mind" as a separate entity in which "processes" occur to the same period, and especially to Descartes. We owe the notion of philosophy as a tribunal of pure reason, upholding or denying the claims of the rest of culture, to the eighteenth century and especially to Kant, but this Kantian notion presupposed general assent to Lockean notions of mental processes and Cartesian notions of mental substance. (Rorty, 1979, pp. 3-4)
       Under pressure from the computer, the question of mind in relation to machine is becoming a central cultural preoccupation. It is becoming for us what sex was to Victorians-threat, obsession, taboo, and fascination. (Turkle, 1984, p. 313)
       7) Understanding the Mind Remains as Resistant to Neurological as to Cognitive Analyses
       Recent years have been exciting for researchers in the brain and cognitive sciences. Both fields have flourished, each spurred on by methodological and conceptual developments, and although understanding the mechanisms of mind is an objective shared by many workers in these areas, their theories and approaches to the problem are vastly different....
       Early experimental psychologists, such as Wundt and James, were as interested in and knowledgeable about the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system as about the young science of the mind. However, the experimental study of mental processes was short-lived, being eclipsed by the rise of behaviorism early in this century. It was not until the late 1950s that the signs of a new mentalism first appeared in scattered writings of linguists, philosophers, computer enthusiasts, and psychologists.
       In this new incarnation, the science of mind had a specific mission: to challenge and replace behaviorism. In the meantime, brain science had in many ways become allied with a behaviorist approach.... While behaviorism sought to reduce the mind to statements about bodily action, brain science seeks to explain the mind in terms of physiochemical events occurring in the nervous system. These approaches contrast with contemporary cognitive science, which tries to understand the mind as it is, without any reduction, a view sometimes described as functionalism.
       The cognitive revolution is now in place. Cognition is the subject of contemporary psychology. This was achieved with little or no talk of neurons, action potentials, and neurotransmitters. Similarly, neuroscience has risen to an esteemed position among the biological sciences without much talk of cognitive processes. Do the fields need each other?... [Y]es because the problem of understanding the mind, unlike the wouldbe problem solvers, respects no disciplinary boundaries. It remains as resistant to neurological as to cognitive analyses. (LeDoux & Hirst, 1986, pp. 1-2)
       Since the Second World War scientists from different disciplines have turned to the study of the human mind. Computer scientists have tried to emulate its capacity for visual perception. Linguists have struggled with the puzzle of how children acquire language. Ethologists have sought the innate roots of social behaviour. Neurophysiologists have begun to relate the function of nerve cells to complex perceptual and motor processes. Neurologists and neuropsychologists have used the pattern of competence and incompetence of their brain-damaged patients to elucidate the normal workings of the brain. Anthropologists have examined the conceptual structure of cultural practices to advance hypotheses about the basic principles of the mind. These days one meets engineers who work on speech perception, biologists who investigate the mental representation of spatial relations, and physicists who want to understand consciousness. And, of course, psychologists continue to study perception, memory, thought and action.
    ... [W]orkers in many disciplines have converged on a number of central problems and explanatory ideas. They have realized that no single approach is likely to unravel the workings of the mind: it will not give up its secrets to psychology alone; nor is any other isolated discipline-artificial intelligence, linguistics, anthropology, neurophysiology, philosophy-going to have any greater success. (Johnson-Laird, 1988, p. 7)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Mind

  • 5 Empire, Portuguese overseas

    (1415-1975)
       Portugal was the first Western European state to establish an early modern overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean and perhaps the last colonial power to decolonize. A vast subject of complexity that is full of myth as well as debatable theories, the history of the Portuguese overseas empire involves the story of more than one empire, the question of imperial motives, the nature of Portuguese rule, and the results and consequences of empire, including the impact on subject peoples as well as on the mother country and its society, Here, only the briefest account of a few such issues can be attempted.
       There were various empires or phases of empire after the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. There were at least three Portuguese empires in history: the First empire (1415-1580), the Second empire (1580-1640 and 1640-1822), and the Third empire (1822-1975).
       With regard to the second empire, the so-called Phillipine period (1580-1640), when Portugal's empire was under Spanish domination, could almost be counted as a separate era. During that period, Portugal lost important parts of its Asian holdings to England and also sections of its colonies of Brazil, Angola, and West Africa to Holland's conquests. These various empires could be characterized by the geography of where Lisbon invested its greatest efforts and resources to develop territories and ward off enemies.
       The first empire (1415-1580) had two phases. First came the African coastal phase (1415-97), when the Portuguese sought a foothold in various Moroccan cities but then explored the African coast from Morocco to past the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. While colonization and sugar farming were pursued in the Atlantic islands, as well as in the islands in the Gulf of Guinea like São Tomé and Príncipe, for the most part the Portuguese strategy was to avoid commitments to defending or peopling lands on the African continent. Rather, Lisbon sought a seaborne trade empire, in which the Portuguese could profit from exploiting trade and resources (such as gold) along the coasts and continue exploring southward to seek a sea route to Portuguese India. The second phase of the first empire (1498-1580) began with the discovery of the sea route to Asia, thanks to Vasco da Gama's first voyage in 1497-99, and the capture of strong points, ports, and trading posts in order to enforce a trade monopoly between Asia and Europe. This Asian phase produced the greatest revenues of empire Portugal had garnered, yet ended when Spain conquered Portugal and commanded her empire as of 1580.
       Portugal's second overseas empire began with Spanish domination and ran to 1822, when Brazil won her independence from Portugal. This phase was characterized largely by Brazilian dominance of imperial commitment, wealth in minerals and other raw materials from Brazil, and the loss of a significant portion of her African and Asian coastal empire to Holland and Great Britain. A sketch of Portugal's imperial losses either to native rebellions or to imperial rivals like Britain and Holland follows:
       • Morocco (North Africa) (sample only)
       Arzila—Taken in 1471; evacuated in 1550s; lost to Spain in 1580, which returned city to a sultan.
       Ceuta—Taken in 1415; lost to Spain in 1640 (loss confirmed in 1668 treaty with Spain).
       • Tangiers—Taken in 15th century; handed over to England in 1661 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to King Charles II.
       • West Africa
       • Fort/Castle of São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (in what is now Ghana)—Taken in 1480s; lost to Holland in 1630s.
       • Middle East
       Socotra-isle—Conquered in 1507; fort abandoned in 1511; used as water resupply stop for India fleet.
       Muscat—Conquered in 1501; lost to Persians in 1650.
       Ormuz—Taken, 1505-15 under Albuquerque; lost to England, which gave it to Persia in the 17th century.
       Aden (entry to Red Sea) — Unsuccessfully attacked by Portugal (1513-30); taken by Turks in 1538.
       • India
       • Ceylon (Sri Lanka)—Taken by 1516; lost to Dutch after 1600.
       • Bombay—Taken in 16th century; given to England in 1661 treaty as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry for Charles II.
       • East Indies
       • Moluccas—Taken by 1520; possession confirmed in 1529 Saragossa treaty with Spain; lost to Dutch after 1600; only East Timor remaining.
       After the restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain in 1640, Portugal proceeded to revive and strengthen the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, with international aid to fight off further Spanish threats to Portugal and drive the Dutch invaders out of Brazil and Angola. While Portugal lost its foothold in West Africa at Mina to the Dutch, dominion in Angola was consolidated. The most vital part of the imperial economy was a triangular trade: slaves from West Africa and from the coasts of Congo and Angola were shipped to plantations in Brazil; raw materials (sugar, tobacco, gold, diamonds, dyes) were sent to Lisbon; Lisbon shipped Brazil colonists and hardware. Part of Portugal's War of Restoration against Spain (1640-68) and its reclaiming of Brazil and Angola from Dutch intrusions was financed by the New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity after the 1496 Manueline order of expulsion of Jews) who lived in Portugal, Holland and other low countries, France, and Brazil. If the first empire was mainly an African coastal and Asian empire, the second empire was primarily a Brazilian empire.
       Portugal's third overseas empire began upon the traumatic independence of Brazil, the keystone of the Lusitanian enterprise, in 1822. The loss of Brazil greatly weakened Portugal both as a European power and as an imperial state, for the scattered remainder of largely coastal, poor, and uncolonized territories that stretched from the bulge of West Africa to East Timor in the East Indies and Macau in south China were more of a financial liability than an asset. Only two small territories balanced their budgets occasionally or made profits: the cocoa islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea and tiny Macau, which lost much of its advantage as an entrepot between the West and the East when the British annexed neighboring Hong Kong in 1842. The others were largely burdens on the treasury. The African colonies were strapped by a chronic economic problem: at a time when the slave trade and then slavery were being abolished under pressures from Britain and other Western powers, the economies of Guinea- Bissau, São Tomé/Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique were totally dependent on revenues from the slave trade and slavery. During the course of the 19th century, Lisbon began a program to reform colonial administration in a newly rejuvenated African empire, where most of the imperial efforts were expended, by means of replacing the slave trade and slavery, with legitimate economic activities.
       Portugal participated in its own early version of the "Scramble" for Africa's interior during 1850-69, but discovered that the costs of imperial expansion were too high to allow effective occupation of the hinterlands. After 1875, Portugal participated in the international "Scramble for Africa" and consolidated its holdings in west and southern Africa, despite the failure of the contra-costa (to the opposite coast) plan, which sought to link up the interiors of Angola and Mozambique with a corridor in central Africa. Portugal's expansion into what is now Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (eastern section) in 1885-90 was thwarted by its oldest ally, Britain, under pressure from interest groups in South Africa, Scotland, and England. All things considered, Portugal's colonizing resources and energies were overwhelmed by the African empire it possessed after the frontier-marking treaties of 1891-1906. Lisbon could barely administer the massive area of five African colonies, whose total area comprised about 8 percent of the area of the colossal continent. The African territories alone were many times the size of tiny Portugal and, as of 1914, Portugal was the third colonial power in terms of size of area possessed in the world.
       The politics of Portugal's empire were deceptive. Lisbon remained obsessed with the fear that rival colonial powers, especially Germany and Britain, would undermine and then dismantle her African empire. This fear endured well into World War II. In developing and keeping her potentially rich African territories (especially mineral-rich Angola and strategically located Mozambique), however, the race against time was with herself and her subject peoples. Two major problems, both chronic, prevented Portugal from effective colonization (i.e., settling) and development of her African empire: the economic weakness and underdevelopment of the mother country and the fact that the bulk of Portuguese emigration after 1822 went to Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, and France, not to the colonies. These factors made it difficult to consolidate imperial control until it was too late; that is, until local African nationalist movements had organized and taken the field in insurgency wars that began in three of the colonies during the years 1961-64.
       Portugal's belated effort to revitalize control and to develop, in the truest sense of the word, Angola and Mozambique after 1961 had to be set against contemporary events in Europe, Africa, and Asia. While Portugal held on to a backward empire, other European countries like Britain, France, and Belgium were rapidly decolonizing their empires. Portugal's failure or unwillingness to divert the large streams of emigrants to her empire after 1850 remained a constant factor in this question. Prophetic were the words of the 19th-century economist Joaquim Oliveira Martins, who wrote in 1880 that Brazil was a better colony for Portugal than Africa and that the best colony of all would have been Portugal itself. As of the day of the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which sparked the final process of decolonization of the remainder of Portugal's third overseas empire, the results of the colonization program could be seen to be modest compared to the numbers of Portuguese emigrants outside the empire. Moreover, within a year, of some 600,000 Portuguese residing permanently in Angola and Mozambique, all but a few thousand had fled to South Africa or returned to Portugal.
       In 1974 and 1975, most of the Portuguese empire was decolonized or, in the case of East Timor, invaded and annexed by a foreign power before it could consolidate its independence. Only historic Macau, scheduled for transfer to the People's Republic of China in 1999, remained nominally under Portuguese control as a kind of footnote to imperial history. If Portugal now lacked a conventional overseas empire and was occupied with the challenges of integration in the European Union (EU), Lisbon retained another sort of informal dependency that was a new kind of empire: the empire of her scattered overseas Portuguese communities from North America to South America. Their numbers were at least six times greater than that of the last settlers of the third empire.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Empire, Portuguese overseas

  • 6 Crookes, Sir William

    SUBJECT AREA: Electricity
    [br]
    b. 17 June 1832 London, England
    d. 4 April 1919 London, England
    [br]
    English chemist and physicist who carried out studies of electrical discharges and cathode rays in rarefied gases, leading to the development of the cathode ray tube; discoverer of the element thallium and the principle of the Crookes radiometer.
    [br]
    Crookes entered the Royal College of Chemistry at the age of 15, and from 1850 to 1854 held the appointment of Assistant at the college. In 1854 he became Superintendent of the Meteorological Department at the Radcliffe Observatory in Oxford. He moved to a post at the College of Science in Chester the following year. Soon after this he inherited a large fortune and set up his own private laboratory in London. There he studied the nature of electrical discharges in gases at low pressure and discovered the dark space (later named after him) that surrounds the negative electrode, or cathode. He also established that the rays produced in the process (subsequently shown by J.J.Thompson to be a stream of electrons) not only travelled in straight lines, but were also capable of producing heat and/or light upon impact with suitable anode materials. Using a variety of new methods to investigate these "cathode" rays, he applied them to the spectral analysis of compounds of selenium and, as a result, in 1861 he discovered the element thallium, finally establishing its atomic weight in 1873. Following his discovery of thallium, he became involved in two main lines of research: the properties of rarified gases, and the investigation of the elements of the "rare earths". It was also during these experiments that he discovered the principle of the Crookes radiometer, a device in which light is converted into rotational motion and which used to be found frequently in the shop windows of English opticians. Also among the fruits of this work were the Crookes tubes and the development of spectacle lenses with differential ranges of radiational absorption. In the 1870s he became interested in spiritualism and acquired a reputation for his studies of psychic phenomena, but at the turn of the century he returned to traditional scientific investigations. In 1892 he wrote about the possibility of wireless telegraphy. His work in the field of radioactivity led to the invention of the spinthariscope, an early type of detector of alpha particles. In 1900 he undertook investigations into uranium which led to the study of scintillation, an important tool in the study of radioactivity.
    While the theoretical basis of his work has not stood the test of time, his material discoveries, observations and investigations of new facts formed a basis on which others such as J.J. Thomson were to develop subatomic theory. His later involvement in the investigation of spiritualism led to much criticism, but could be justified on the basis of a belief in the duty to investigate all phenomena.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1897. Order of Merit 1910. FRS 1863. President, Royal Society 1913–15. Honorary LLD Birmingham. Honorary DSc Oxon, Cambridge, Sheffield, Durham, Ireland and Cape of Good Hope.
    Bibliography
    1874, On Attraction and Repulsion Resulting from Radiation.
    1874, "Researches in the phenomenon of spiritualism", Society of Metaphysics; reprinted in facsimile, 1986.
    Further Reading
    E.E.Fournier D'Albe, 1923, Life of Sir William Crookes. Who Was Who II, 1916–28, London: A. \& C. Black. T.I.Williams, 1969, A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists. See also Braun, Karl Ferdinand.
    KF / MG

    Biographical history of technology > Crookes, Sir William

  • 7 Cross, Charles Frederick

    [br]
    b. 11 December 1855 Brentwood, Middlesex, England
    d. 15 April 1935 Hove, England
    [br]
    English chemist who contributed to the development of viscose rayon from cellulose.
    [br]
    Cross was educated at the universities of London, Zurich and Manchester. It was at Owens College, Manchester, that Cross first met E.J. Bevan and where these two first worked together on the nature of cellulose. After gaining some industrial experience, Cross joined Bevan to set up a partnership in London as analytical and consulting chemists, specializing in the chemistry and technology of cellulose and lignin. They were at the Jodrell laboratory, Kew Gardens, for a time and then set up their own laboratory at Station Avenue, Kew Gardens. In 1888, the first edition of their joint publication A Textbook of Paper-making, appeared. It went into several editions and became the standard reference and textbook on the subject. The long introductory chapter is a discourse on cellulose.
    In 1892, Cross, Bevan and Clayton Beadle took out their historic patent on the solution and regeneration of cellulose. The modern artificial-fibre industry stems from this patent. They made their discovery at New Court, Carey Street, London: wood-pulp (or another cheap form of cellulose) was dissolved in a mixture of carbon disulphide and aqueous alkali to produce sodium xanthate. After maturing, it was squirted through fine holes into dilute acid, which set the liquid to give spinnable fibres of "viscose". However, it was many years before the process became a commercial operation, partly because the use of a natural raw material such as wood involved variations in chemical content and each batch might react differently. At first it was thought that viscose might be suitable for incandescent lamp filaments, and C.H.Stearn, a collaborator with Cross, continued to investigate this possibility, but the sheen on the fibres suggested that viscose might be made into artificial silk. The original Viscose Spinning Syndicate was formed in 1894 and a place was rented at Erith in Kent. However, it was not until some skeins of artificial silk (a term to which Cross himself objected) were displayed in Paris that textile manufacturers began to take an interest in it. It was then that Courtaulds decided to investigate this new fibre, although it was not until 1904 that they bought the English patents and developed the first artificial silk that was later called "rayon". Cross was also concerned with the development of viscose films and of cellulose acetate, which became a rival to rayon in the form of "Celanese". He retained his interest in the paper industry and in publishing, in 1895 again collaborating with Bevan and publishing a book on Cellulose and other technical articles. He was a cultured man and a good musician. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1917.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1917.
    Bibliography
    1888, with E.J.Bevan, A Text-book of Papermaking. 1892, British patent no. 8,700 (cellulose).
    Further Reading
    Obituary Notices of the Royal Society, 1935, London. Obituary, 1935, Journal of the Chemical Society 1,337. Chambers Concise Dictionary of Scientists, 1989, Cambridge.
    Edwin J.Beer, 1962–3, "The birth of viscose rayon", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 35 (an account of the problems of developing viscose rayon; Beer worked under Cross in the Kew laboratories).
    C.Singer (ed.), 1978, A History of Technology, Vol. VI, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Cross, Charles Frederick

  • 8 raw

    ro:
    1) (not cooked: raw onions/meat.) crudo
    2) (not prepared or refined; in the natural state: raw cotton; What raw materials are used to make plastic?) bruto, sin refinar, en rama
    3) (with the skin rubbed and sore: My heel is raw because my shoe doesn't fit properly.) en carne viva
    4) (untrained; inexperienced: raw recruits.) verde, inexperto
    •
    - a raw deal
    - raw material
    raw adj crudo
    I can't eat this meat, it's raw no puedo comer esta carne, está cruda
    tr[rɔː]
    1 (uncooked) crudo,-a
    2 (unprocessed) bruto,-a; (unrefined) sin refinar; (untreated) sin tratar
    3 (inexperienced) novato,-a
    4 (weather) crudo,-a
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    raw deal trato injusto
    raw material materia prima
    raw ['rɔ] adj, rawer ; rawest
    1) uncooked: crudo
    2) untreated: sin tratar, sin refinar, puro
    raw data: datos en bruto
    raw materials: materias primas
    3) inexperienced: novato, inexperto
    4) open: abierto, en carne viva
    a raw sore: una llaga abierta
    5) : frío y húmedo
    a raw day: un día crudo
    6) unfair: injusto
    a raw deal: un trato injusto, una injusticia
    adj.
    • colecticio, -a adj.
    • crudo, -a adj.
    • en bruto adj.
    • novato, -a adj.
    n.
    • carne viva s.f.

    I rɔː
    1)
    a) ( uncooked) <meat/vegetables> crudo
    b) ( unprocessed) < silk> crudo, salvaje; < sugar> sin refinar; < sewage> sin tratar

    raw milk — (AmE) leche f sin pasteurizar

    2)
    a) < wind> cortante
    b) ( unfair)

    it's a raw deal — es una injusticia, es muy injusto

    3) ( sore)
    4) ( inexperienced) verde (fam); < recruit> novato, primerizo

    II
    [rɔː]
    1. ADJ
    1) (=uncooked) [meat, vegetable, egg] crudo
    2) (=unprocessed) [sugar] sin refinar; [spirit] puro; [silk] crudo, salvaje; [cotton] en rama, sin refinar; [ore] bruto; [rubber] sin tratar, puro; [sewage] sin tratar

    raw data — datos mpl sin procesar

    3) (=sore) [wound] abierto

    raw flesh — carne f viva

    4) (=basic) [anger, hate, ambition] puro

    he has raw talent, but it lacks proper direction — tiene el talento en bruto, pero no sabe canalizarlo

    5) (=harsh) [wind] cortante, fuerte; [weather, night] crudo
    6) (=inexperienced) [person, troops] novato, inexperto

    a raw recruit — (Mil) quinto m, soldado mf raso; (fig) novato(-a) m / f

    7) * (=unfair)

    a raw deal: he got a raw deal — le trataron injustamente

    8) (=coarse) [humour] crudo
    2.
    N

    it got or touched him on the raw — (fig) lo hirió en lo más vivo, lo hirió donde más le dolía

    life/nature in the raw — la vida/naturaleza tal cual

    in the raw * — (=naked) en cueros *, en pelotas **

    * * *

    I [rɔː]
    1)
    a) ( uncooked) <meat/vegetables> crudo
    b) ( unprocessed) < silk> crudo, salvaje; < sugar> sin refinar; < sewage> sin tratar

    raw milk — (AmE) leche f sin pasteurizar

    2)
    a) < wind> cortante
    b) ( unfair)

    it's a raw deal — es una injusticia, es muy injusto

    3) ( sore)
    4) ( inexperienced) verde (fam); < recruit> novato, primerizo

    II

    English-spanish dictionary > raw

  • 9 raw

    {rɔ:}
    I. 1. суров, несварен, неопечен, недоварен, недопечен
    2. суров, необработен, мин. необогатен
    RAW materials суровини
    RAW spirits неразреден/чист спирт
    RAW sugar нерафинирана захар
    3. прен. груб, недообработен, недоизкусурен
    4. отворен, кървящ (за рана), ожулен, (силно) възпален
    5. неопитен, аджамия
    RAW recruit новобранец
    6. влажен, студен, пронизващ (за вятър)
    7. разг. несправедлив, суров
    RAW deal несправедливо отношение, несправедливост
    8. разг. нецензурен, вулгарен
    9. sl. гол
    RAW head and bloody bones плашило, страшилище
    II. n (отворена) рана, ожулено място
    in the RAW груб, нецивилизован, див, гол
    life in the RAW животът с всичките му трудности, суровият живот
    nature in the RAW грубата (човешка) природа
    * * *
    {rъ:} а 1. суров, несварен, неопечен; недоварен, недопечен; 2. су(2) {rъ:} n (отворена) рана; ожулено място; in the raw 1) груб, нец
    * * *
    студен; суров; рана; скандал; отворен; възпален; влажен; груб; кървящ; недопечен; недоизкусурен; неопитен; неопечен; необработен; несварен;
    * * *
    1. i. суров, несварен, неопечен, недоварен, недопечен 2. ii. n (отворена) рана, ожулено място 3. in the raw груб, нецивилизован, див, гол 4. life in the raw животът с всичките му трудности, суровият живот 5. nature in the raw грубата (човешка) природа 6. raw deal несправедливо отношение, несправедливост 7. raw head and bloody bones плашило, страшилище 8. raw materials суровини 9. raw recruit новобранец 10. raw spirits неразреден/чист спирт 11. raw sugar нерафинирана захар 12. sl. гол 13. влажен, студен, пронизващ (за вятър) 14. неопитен, аджамия 15. отворен, кървящ (за рана), ожулен, (силно) възпален 16. прен. груб, недообработен, недоизкусурен 17. разг. несправедлив, суров 18. разг. нецензурен, вулгарен 19. суров, необработен, мин. необогатен
    * * *
    raw[rɔ:] I. adj 1. суров, несварен, недосварен, неопечен; недопечен; 2. суров, необработен; необогатен; \raw materials суровини; \raw spirits неразреден спирт; \raw sugar нерафинирана захар; \raw brine природен (непречистен) разсол; \raw statistics необработени статистически данни; 3. груб, неизмайсторен, недоизкусурен; \raw castings pl непочистени отливки; 4. отворен, кървящ (за рана); ожулен, възпален; to touch a \raw nerve засягам по болното място, настъпвам по мазола; 5. неопитен, аджамия; \raw recruit новобранец; 6. груб, недодялан, натуралистичен; 7. sl несправедлив, груб; a \raw deal несправедливост, лош късмет; 8. студен, влажен, пронизващ (за време, вятър); 9. прясно нарисувана (за картина); II. n 1. рана, ожулено място; • in the \raw 1) необработен; 2) неподправен, естествен; 3) гол; 2. слабо (чувствително) място; his criticism touched me on the \raw критиката му ме засегна много дълбоко; 3. нерафинирана захар; сурова кожа; III. v 1. рядко ожулвам, изранявам; 2. одирам ( кожа).

    English-Bulgarian dictionary > raw

  • 10 raw

    1. adjective
    1) (uncooked) roh
    2) (inexperienced) unerfahren; blutig [Anfänger]; see also academic.ru/60810/recruit">recruit 1. 1), 3)
    3) (stripped of skin) blutig [Fleisch]; offen [Wunde]; (sore) wund [Füße]

    touch or hit a raw nerve — einen wunden Punkt od. eine empfindliche Stelle treffen

    4) (chilly) nasskalt
    5) (untreated) Roh[haut, -holz, -seide, -zucker, -erz, -leder]; (undiluted) rein [Alkohol]
    6) (fig.): (unpolished) grob
    7) (Statistics) unaufbereitet
    2. noun

    touch somebody on the raw — (Brit. coll.) jemanden an [s]einer verwundbaren Stelle treffen

    * * *
    [ro:]
    1) (not cooked: raw onions/meat.) roh
    2) (not prepared or refined; in the natural state: raw cotton; What raw materials are used to make plastic?) Roh-...
    3) (with the skin rubbed and sore: My heel is raw because my shoe doesn't fit properly.) wund
    4) (untrained; inexperienced: raw recruits.) unerfahren
    •
    - rawness
    - a raw deal
    - raw material
    * * *
    [rɔ:, AM esp rɑ:]
    I. adj inv
    1. (unprocessed) roh, unbehandelt
    \raw material Rohstoff m
    \raw sewage ungeklärte Abwässer pl
    \raw silk Rohseide f
    2. (uncooked) roh
    in their \raw state im Rohzustand, in ungekochtem Zustand
    3. (of information) Roh-
    \raw data Rohdaten pl
    \raw evidence unbestätigter Hinweis
    \raw figures Schätzzahlen pl, Schätzungen pl
    4. (inexperienced) unerfahren
    a \raw beginner/recruit ein blutiger Anfänger/eine blutige Anfängerin
    5. (unbridled) rein
    \raw energy pure Energie
    \raw power rohe Kraft
    6. (outspoken) offen
    a \raw drama ein offenes Drama
    7. (sore) wund; ( fig) nerves, emotions blank, empfindlich
    8. (cold) rau
    a \raw wind ein rauer Wind
    9.
    ▶ to come the \raw prawn AUS unschuldig tun
    ▶ to expose a \raw nerve [or spot] einen wunden Punkt berühren
    ▶ to get [or be given] a \raw deal unfair behandelt werden, zu kurz kommen
    II. n
    1. ( fam: naked)
    in the \raw nackt
    2. (hiding nothing)
    in the \raw ungeschönt, ohne jede Beschönigung
    3.
    ▶ to touch sb on the \raw BRIT, AUS jdn an einer empfindlichen Stelle treffen, einen wunden Punkt bei jdm berühren
    * * *
    [rɔː]
    1. adj (+er)
    1) (= uncooked) meat, food roh; (= unprocessed) roh, Roh-; alcohol rein, unvermischt; cloth ungewalkt; leather ungegerbt; cotton roh, naturbelassen, unbehandelt; rubber roh; sewage ungeklärt

    to give sb a raw deal (inf) — jdn benachteiligen, jdn unfair behandeln

    2) (= naked, pure basic) emotion nackt, unverfälscht; energy ursprünglich, impulsiv, nackt; talent ungeschliffen, elementar; ambition, statistics nackt; courage elementar, unverfälscht; facts nackt, unverfälscht, ungeschönt

    raw score ( US Sch ) — bloße Punktergebnisse or Punkte pl

    3) (= inexperienced) troops, recruit neu, unerfahren
    4) (= sore) wound offen; skin wund; nerves empfindlich

    red and raw —

    to touch a raw nerve (fig) — einen wunden Punkt berühren, einen rohen or offen liegenden Nerv berühren

    5) (= frank) account ungeschönt, ungeschliffen, ungemildert
    6) (MET) climate, wind, air rau; night rau, stürmisch
    7) (esp US: coarse) humour, story, person derb; colour grell
    2. n
    1)
    2)

    life/nature in the raw — die raue Seite des Lebens/der Natur

    * * *
    raw [rɔː]
    A adj (adv rawly)
    1. roh
    2. a) roh, ungekocht
    b) ungeklärt (Abwässer)
    3. WIRTSCH, TECH roh, Roh…, unbearbeitet, z. B.
    a) ungebrannt (Ton)
    b) ungegerbt (Leder)
    c) ungewalkt (Tuch)
    d) ungesponnen (Wolle)
    e) unvermischt, unverdünnt (Alkohol):
    raw fibre (US fiber) Rohfaser f;
    raw material Rohmaterial n, -stoff m (beide a. fig);
    raw oil Rohöl n;
    raw silk Rohseide f
    4. FOTO unbelichtet:
    raw stock Rohfilm(e) m(pl)
    5. noch nicht ausgewertet, unaufbereitet (Daten etc):
    raw draft Rohentwurf m
    6. US unkultiviert, unbebaut (Land)
    7. US roh, primitiv (Hütte etc)
    8. a) wund (gerieben) (Haut)
    b) offen (Wunde)
    9. roh, grob:
    a) geschmacklos (Bild etc)
    b) sl ungehobelt, wüst
    10. unerfahren, grün umg:
    a raw beginner ein blutiger Anfänger
    11. unwirtlich, rau, nasskalt (Klima, Wetter)
    12. umg gemein, unfair:
    give sb a raw deal jemandem übel mitspielen
    B s
    1. wunde oder wund geriebene Stelle
    2. fig wunder Punkt:
    touch sb on the raw jemanden an seiner empfindlichen Stelle oder empfindlich treffen
    3. WIRTSCH
    a) Rohstoff m, -ware f
    b) meist pl Rohzucker m
    a) im Natur- oder Rohzustand,
    b) umg im Adams- oder Evaskostüm:
    life in the raw das Leben, hart und grausam wie es ist
    * * *
    1. adjective
    1) (uncooked) roh
    2) (inexperienced) unerfahren; blutig [Anfänger]; see also recruit 1. 1), 3)
    3) (stripped of skin) blutig [Fleisch]; offen [Wunde]; (sore) wund [Füße]

    touch or hit a raw nerve — einen wunden Punkt od. eine empfindliche Stelle treffen

    4) (chilly) nasskalt
    5) (untreated) Roh[haut, -holz, -seide, -zucker, -erz, -leder]; (undiluted) rein [Alkohol]
    6) (fig.): (unpolished) grob
    7) (Statistics) unaufbereitet
    2. noun

    touch somebody on the raw — (Brit. coll.) jemanden an [s]einer verwundbaren Stelle treffen

    * * *
    adj.
    grob adj.
    rau adj.
    rauh (alt.Rechtschreibung) adj.
    roh adj.
    unbearbeitet adj.

    English-german dictionary > raw

  • 11 arc-proof low voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly

    1. НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги

     

    НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги
    комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
    низковольтное комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
    НКУ распределения и управления с защитой от электрической дуги
    -
    [Интент]

    EN

    arc-resistant switchgear
    A type of switchgear design which is designed to withstand the effects of an internal arcing fault, without causing harm to personnel who are located in defined areas. It is not intended to withstand these internal arcing fault without possibly causing physical damage to the structure and/or components, but often the physical damage is less with an arc-resistant design.

    There are three classes of protection:
    Type A - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
    Type B - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
    Type C - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear, from between compartments within the same cell, and between adjacent cells during an internal arcing fault.

    Arc-resistant switchgear has traditionally been metal-clad, but the basic concept could also be applied to other types of switchgear as well.

    arc-proof switchgear
    An incorrect term. Please refer to arc-resistant switchgear
    [Schneider Electric]
    [ http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/glossary-of-medium-voltage-switchgear-terms]

    Параллельные тексты EN-RU

    If the electric arc occurs inside LV switchgear it generates internal overpressures and results in local overheatings which may cause high mechanical and thermal stresses in the equipment.

    Besides, the involved materials can generate hot decomposition products, gases or fumes, which, due to the overpressure, are almost always ejected to the outside of the enclosure thus jeopardizing the operator safety.

    The European Directive 2006/95/EC states the fundamental safety requirements for low voltage electric materials (from 50 V to 1000 V in alternating current, from 75 V to 1500 V in continuos current) to be put on the market within the European Community.

    Among the essential safety requirements defined by this Directive particular importance is given to the need of taking technical measures to prevent “temperature rises, electric arcs or radiations which may result in hazards” from occurring.

    This aspect has always been highly considered for apparatus, but it has been wrongly neglected for electrical switchgear and only in the last 10-15 years it has been catching on both at Italian as well as at international level.

    Safety for the operator and for the installation in case of arcing inside LV switchgear can be obtained through three different design philosophies:
    1. assemblies mechanically capable of withstanding the electric arc (passive protection)
    2. assemblies equipped with devices limiting the effects of internal arcing (active protection)
    3. assemblies equipped with current limiting circuitbreakers.

    These three solutions (also combined together) have found a remakable development in the industrial field and have been successfully applied by the main manufacturers of LV switchgear and controlgear assemblies.

    As it can be seen hereafter by examining the first two solutions, an “active” protection against arc faults is intrinsecally more complex than a “passive” one.

    This because of the presence of additional electromechanical/ electronic devices5 which limit the arcing effects and which, by their nature, may be subject to faults or not-tripping.
    [ABB]

    Дуга, возникшая внутри НКУ, создает внутреннее избыточное давление и вызывает локальный перегрев, что может привести к воздействию на оборудование значительного механического напряжения и перепада температур.

    Кроме того, под воздействием дуги различные материалы разлагаются на продукты, имеющие высокую температуру, в том числе газы и дым, которые почти всегда вырываются из оболочки НКУ под высоким давлением, подвергая опасности оперативный персонал.

    Европейская директива 2006/95/EC определяет основные требования безопасности для низковольтного (от 50 до 1000 В переменного тока и от 75 до 1500 В постоянного тока) оборудования поставляемого на рынок Европейского Сообщества.

    Одно из основных требований безопасности, определяемое данной директивой как наиболее важное, заключается в необходимости предпринять технические меры для предотвращения "подъема температуры, возникновения электрической дуги или излучения", которые могут причинить ущерб.

    Данная проблема всегда учитывалась при создании различных аппаратов, но незаслуженно игнорировалась при разработке электрических комплектных устройств, и только в последние 10-15 лет ей стали уделять должное внимание как в Италии, так и во всем мире.

    При возникновении электрической дуги внутри НКУ безопасность оператора и электроустановки обеспечивается тремя способами:
    1. Конструкция НКУ должна выдерживать механические воздействия, возникающие при горении электрической дуги (пассивная защита).
    2. НКУ должно быть оснащено устройствами, ограничивающими воздействие электрической дуги (активная защита)
    3. НКУ должны быть оснащены токоограничивающими автоматическими выключателями.

    Указанные три способа (применяемые совместно) получили дальнейшее развитие в промышленности и успешно применяются основными изготовителями НКУ распределения и управления.

    Как будет показано далее при рассмотрении первых двух способов, активная защита от дуговых» неисправностей является более сложной, чем пассивная защита.

    Это объясняется необходимостью использования дополнительных электромеханических или электронных устройств, задачей которых является ограничение воздействий дуги и которые сами могут оказаться неисправными и не сработать.
    [Перевод Интент]

    Тематики

    • НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)

    Синонимы

    EN

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > arc-proof low voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly

  • 12 arc-proof switchboard

    1. НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги

     

    НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги
    комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
    низковольтное комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
    НКУ распределения и управления с защитой от электрической дуги
    -
    [Интент]

    EN

    arc-resistant switchgear
    A type of switchgear design which is designed to withstand the effects of an internal arcing fault, without causing harm to personnel who are located in defined areas. It is not intended to withstand these internal arcing fault without possibly causing physical damage to the structure and/or components, but often the physical damage is less with an arc-resistant design.

    There are three classes of protection:
    Type A - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
    Type B - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
    Type C - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear, from between compartments within the same cell, and between adjacent cells during an internal arcing fault.

    Arc-resistant switchgear has traditionally been metal-clad, but the basic concept could also be applied to other types of switchgear as well.

    arc-proof switchgear
    An incorrect term. Please refer to arc-resistant switchgear
    [Schneider Electric]
    [ http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/glossary-of-medium-voltage-switchgear-terms]

    Параллельные тексты EN-RU

    If the electric arc occurs inside LV switchgear it generates internal overpressures and results in local overheatings which may cause high mechanical and thermal stresses in the equipment.

    Besides, the involved materials can generate hot decomposition products, gases or fumes, which, due to the overpressure, are almost always ejected to the outside of the enclosure thus jeopardizing the operator safety.

    The European Directive 2006/95/EC states the fundamental safety requirements for low voltage electric materials (from 50 V to 1000 V in alternating current, from 75 V to 1500 V in continuos current) to be put on the market within the European Community.

    Among the essential safety requirements defined by this Directive particular importance is given to the need of taking technical measures to prevent “temperature rises, electric arcs or radiations which may result in hazards” from occurring.

    This aspect has always been highly considered for apparatus, but it has been wrongly neglected for electrical switchgear and only in the last 10-15 years it has been catching on both at Italian as well as at international level.

    Safety for the operator and for the installation in case of arcing inside LV switchgear can be obtained through three different design philosophies:
    1. assemblies mechanically capable of withstanding the electric arc (passive protection)
    2. assemblies equipped with devices limiting the effects of internal arcing (active protection)
    3. assemblies equipped with current limiting circuitbreakers.

    These three solutions (also combined together) have found a remakable development in the industrial field and have been successfully applied by the main manufacturers of LV switchgear and controlgear assemblies.

    As it can be seen hereafter by examining the first two solutions, an “active” protection against arc faults is intrinsecally more complex than a “passive” one.

    This because of the presence of additional electromechanical/ electronic devices5 which limit the arcing effects and which, by their nature, may be subject to faults or not-tripping.
    [ABB]

    Дуга, возникшая внутри НКУ, создает внутреннее избыточное давление и вызывает локальный перегрев, что может привести к воздействию на оборудование значительного механического напряжения и перепада температур.

    Кроме того, под воздействием дуги различные материалы разлагаются на продукты, имеющие высокую температуру, в том числе газы и дым, которые почти всегда вырываются из оболочки НКУ под высоким давлением, подвергая опасности оперативный персонал.

    Европейская директива 2006/95/EC определяет основные требования безопасности для низковольтного (от 50 до 1000 В переменного тока и от 75 до 1500 В постоянного тока) оборудования поставляемого на рынок Европейского Сообщества.

    Одно из основных требований безопасности, определяемое данной директивой как наиболее важное, заключается в необходимости предпринять технические меры для предотвращения "подъема температуры, возникновения электрической дуги или излучения", которые могут причинить ущерб.

    Данная проблема всегда учитывалась при создании различных аппаратов, но незаслуженно игнорировалась при разработке электрических комплектных устройств, и только в последние 10-15 лет ей стали уделять должное внимание как в Италии, так и во всем мире.

    При возникновении электрической дуги внутри НКУ безопасность оператора и электроустановки обеспечивается тремя способами:
    1. Конструкция НКУ должна выдерживать механические воздействия, возникающие при горении электрической дуги (пассивная защита).
    2. НКУ должно быть оснащено устройствами, ограничивающими воздействие электрической дуги (активная защита)
    3. НКУ должны быть оснащены токоограничивающими автоматическими выключателями.

    Указанные три способа (применяемые совместно) получили дальнейшее развитие в промышленности и успешно применяются основными изготовителями НКУ распределения и управления.

    Как будет показано далее при рассмотрении первых двух способов, активная защита от дуговых» неисправностей является более сложной, чем пассивная защита.

    Это объясняется необходимостью использования дополнительных электромеханических или электронных устройств, задачей которых является ограничение воздействий дуги и которые сами могут оказаться неисправными и не сработать.
    [Перевод Интент]

    Тематики

    • НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)

    Синонимы

    EN

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > arc-proof switchboard

  • 13 arc-proof switchgear

    1. НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги

     

    НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги
    комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
    низковольтное комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
    НКУ распределения и управления с защитой от электрической дуги
    -
    [Интент]

    EN

    arc-resistant switchgear
    A type of switchgear design which is designed to withstand the effects of an internal arcing fault, without causing harm to personnel who are located in defined areas. It is not intended to withstand these internal arcing fault without possibly causing physical damage to the structure and/or components, but often the physical damage is less with an arc-resistant design.

    There are three classes of protection:
    Type A - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
    Type B - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
    Type C - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear, from between compartments within the same cell, and between adjacent cells during an internal arcing fault.

    Arc-resistant switchgear has traditionally been metal-clad, but the basic concept could also be applied to other types of switchgear as well.

    arc-proof switchgear
    An incorrect term. Please refer to arc-resistant switchgear
    [Schneider Electric]
    [ http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/glossary-of-medium-voltage-switchgear-terms]

    Параллельные тексты EN-RU

    If the electric arc occurs inside LV switchgear it generates internal overpressures and results in local overheatings which may cause high mechanical and thermal stresses in the equipment.

    Besides, the involved materials can generate hot decomposition products, gases or fumes, which, due to the overpressure, are almost always ejected to the outside of the enclosure thus jeopardizing the operator safety.

    The European Directive 2006/95/EC states the fundamental safety requirements for low voltage electric materials (from 50 V to 1000 V in alternating current, from 75 V to 1500 V in continuos current) to be put on the market within the European Community.

    Among the essential safety requirements defined by this Directive particular importance is given to the need of taking technical measures to prevent “temperature rises, electric arcs or radiations which may result in hazards” from occurring.

    This aspect has always been highly considered for apparatus, but it has been wrongly neglected for electrical switchgear and only in the last 10-15 years it has been catching on both at Italian as well as at international level.

    Safety for the operator and for the installation in case of arcing inside LV switchgear can be obtained through three different design philosophies:
    1. assemblies mechanically capable of withstanding the electric arc (passive protection)
    2. assemblies equipped with devices limiting the effects of internal arcing (active protection)
    3. assemblies equipped with current limiting circuitbreakers.

    These three solutions (also combined together) have found a remakable development in the industrial field and have been successfully applied by the main manufacturers of LV switchgear and controlgear assemblies.

    As it can be seen hereafter by examining the first two solutions, an “active” protection against arc faults is intrinsecally more complex than a “passive” one.

    This because of the presence of additional electromechanical/ electronic devices5 which limit the arcing effects and which, by their nature, may be subject to faults or not-tripping.
    [ABB]

    Дуга, возникшая внутри НКУ, создает внутреннее избыточное давление и вызывает локальный перегрев, что может привести к воздействию на оборудование значительного механического напряжения и перепада температур.

    Кроме того, под воздействием дуги различные материалы разлагаются на продукты, имеющие высокую температуру, в том числе газы и дым, которые почти всегда вырываются из оболочки НКУ под высоким давлением, подвергая опасности оперативный персонал.

    Европейская директива 2006/95/EC определяет основные требования безопасности для низковольтного (от 50 до 1000 В переменного тока и от 75 до 1500 В постоянного тока) оборудования поставляемого на рынок Европейского Сообщества.

    Одно из основных требований безопасности, определяемое данной директивой как наиболее важное, заключается в необходимости предпринять технические меры для предотвращения "подъема температуры, возникновения электрической дуги или излучения", которые могут причинить ущерб.

    Данная проблема всегда учитывалась при создании различных аппаратов, но незаслуженно игнорировалась при разработке электрических комплектных устройств, и только в последние 10-15 лет ей стали уделять должное внимание как в Италии, так и во всем мире.

    При возникновении электрической дуги внутри НКУ безопасность оператора и электроустановки обеспечивается тремя способами:
    1. Конструкция НКУ должна выдерживать механические воздействия, возникающие при горении электрической дуги (пассивная защита).
    2. НКУ должно быть оснащено устройствами, ограничивающими воздействие электрической дуги (активная защита)
    3. НКУ должны быть оснащены токоограничивающими автоматическими выключателями.

    Указанные три способа (применяемые совместно) получили дальнейшее развитие в промышленности и успешно применяются основными изготовителями НКУ распределения и управления.

    Как будет показано далее при рассмотрении первых двух способов, активная защита от дуговых» неисправностей является более сложной, чем пассивная защита.

    Это объясняется необходимостью использования дополнительных электромеханических или электронных устройств, задачей которых является ограничение воздействий дуги и которые сами могут оказаться неисправными и не сработать.
    [Перевод Интент]

    Тематики

    • НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)

    Синонимы

    EN

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > arc-proof switchgear

  • 14 arc-resistant switchgear

    1. НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги

     

    НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги
    комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
    низковольтное комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
    НКУ распределения и управления с защитой от электрической дуги
    -
    [Интент]

    EN

    arc-resistant switchgear
    A type of switchgear design which is designed to withstand the effects of an internal arcing fault, without causing harm to personnel who are located in defined areas. It is not intended to withstand these internal arcing fault without possibly causing physical damage to the structure and/or components, but often the physical damage is less with an arc-resistant design.

    There are three classes of protection:
    Type A - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
    Type B - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
    Type C - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear, from between compartments within the same cell, and between adjacent cells during an internal arcing fault.

    Arc-resistant switchgear has traditionally been metal-clad, but the basic concept could also be applied to other types of switchgear as well.

    arc-proof switchgear
    An incorrect term. Please refer to arc-resistant switchgear
    [Schneider Electric]
    [ http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/glossary-of-medium-voltage-switchgear-terms]

    Параллельные тексты EN-RU

    If the electric arc occurs inside LV switchgear it generates internal overpressures and results in local overheatings which may cause high mechanical and thermal stresses in the equipment.

    Besides, the involved materials can generate hot decomposition products, gases or fumes, which, due to the overpressure, are almost always ejected to the outside of the enclosure thus jeopardizing the operator safety.

    The European Directive 2006/95/EC states the fundamental safety requirements for low voltage electric materials (from 50 V to 1000 V in alternating current, from 75 V to 1500 V in continuos current) to be put on the market within the European Community.

    Among the essential safety requirements defined by this Directive particular importance is given to the need of taking technical measures to prevent “temperature rises, electric arcs or radiations which may result in hazards” from occurring.

    This aspect has always been highly considered for apparatus, but it has been wrongly neglected for electrical switchgear and only in the last 10-15 years it has been catching on both at Italian as well as at international level.

    Safety for the operator and for the installation in case of arcing inside LV switchgear can be obtained through three different design philosophies:
    1. assemblies mechanically capable of withstanding the electric arc (passive protection)
    2. assemblies equipped with devices limiting the effects of internal arcing (active protection)
    3. assemblies equipped with current limiting circuitbreakers.

    These three solutions (also combined together) have found a remakable development in the industrial field and have been successfully applied by the main manufacturers of LV switchgear and controlgear assemblies.

    As it can be seen hereafter by examining the first two solutions, an “active” protection against arc faults is intrinsecally more complex than a “passive” one.

    This because of the presence of additional electromechanical/ electronic devices5 which limit the arcing effects and which, by their nature, may be subject to faults or not-tripping.
    [ABB]

    Дуга, возникшая внутри НКУ, создает внутреннее избыточное давление и вызывает локальный перегрев, что может привести к воздействию на оборудование значительного механического напряжения и перепада температур.

    Кроме того, под воздействием дуги различные материалы разлагаются на продукты, имеющие высокую температуру, в том числе газы и дым, которые почти всегда вырываются из оболочки НКУ под высоким давлением, подвергая опасности оперативный персонал.

    Европейская директива 2006/95/EC определяет основные требования безопасности для низковольтного (от 50 до 1000 В переменного тока и от 75 до 1500 В постоянного тока) оборудования поставляемого на рынок Европейского Сообщества.

    Одно из основных требований безопасности, определяемое данной директивой как наиболее важное, заключается в необходимости предпринять технические меры для предотвращения "подъема температуры, возникновения электрической дуги или излучения", которые могут причинить ущерб.

    Данная проблема всегда учитывалась при создании различных аппаратов, но незаслуженно игнорировалась при разработке электрических комплектных устройств, и только в последние 10-15 лет ей стали уделять должное внимание как в Италии, так и во всем мире.

    При возникновении электрической дуги внутри НКУ безопасность оператора и электроустановки обеспечивается тремя способами:
    1. Конструкция НКУ должна выдерживать механические воздействия, возникающие при горении электрической дуги (пассивная защита).
    2. НКУ должно быть оснащено устройствами, ограничивающими воздействие электрической дуги (активная защита)
    3. НКУ должны быть оснащены токоограничивающими автоматическими выключателями.

    Указанные три способа (применяемые совместно) получили дальнейшее развитие в промышленности и успешно применяются основными изготовителями НКУ распределения и управления.

    Как будет показано далее при рассмотрении первых двух способов, активная защита от дуговых» неисправностей является более сложной, чем пассивная защита.

    Это объясняется необходимостью использования дополнительных электромеханических или электронных устройств, задачей которых является ограничение воздействий дуги и которые сами могут оказаться неисправными и не сработать.
    [Перевод Интент]

    Тематики

    • НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)

    Синонимы

    EN

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > arc-resistant switchgear

  • 15 internal arc-proof switchgear and controlgear assemblу

    1. НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги

     

    НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги
    комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
    низковольтное комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
    НКУ распределения и управления с защитой от электрической дуги
    -
    [Интент]

    EN

    arc-resistant switchgear
    A type of switchgear design which is designed to withstand the effects of an internal arcing fault, without causing harm to personnel who are located in defined areas. It is not intended to withstand these internal arcing fault without possibly causing physical damage to the structure and/or components, but often the physical damage is less with an arc-resistant design.

    There are three classes of protection:
    Type A - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
    Type B - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
    Type C - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear, from between compartments within the same cell, and between adjacent cells during an internal arcing fault.

    Arc-resistant switchgear has traditionally been metal-clad, but the basic concept could also be applied to other types of switchgear as well.

    arc-proof switchgear
    An incorrect term. Please refer to arc-resistant switchgear
    [Schneider Electric]
    [ http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/glossary-of-medium-voltage-switchgear-terms]

    Параллельные тексты EN-RU

    If the electric arc occurs inside LV switchgear it generates internal overpressures and results in local overheatings which may cause high mechanical and thermal stresses in the equipment.

    Besides, the involved materials can generate hot decomposition products, gases or fumes, which, due to the overpressure, are almost always ejected to the outside of the enclosure thus jeopardizing the operator safety.

    The European Directive 2006/95/EC states the fundamental safety requirements for low voltage electric materials (from 50 V to 1000 V in alternating current, from 75 V to 1500 V in continuos current) to be put on the market within the European Community.

    Among the essential safety requirements defined by this Directive particular importance is given to the need of taking technical measures to prevent “temperature rises, electric arcs or radiations which may result in hazards” from occurring.

    This aspect has always been highly considered for apparatus, but it has been wrongly neglected for electrical switchgear and only in the last 10-15 years it has been catching on both at Italian as well as at international level.

    Safety for the operator and for the installation in case of arcing inside LV switchgear can be obtained through three different design philosophies:
    1. assemblies mechanically capable of withstanding the electric arc (passive protection)
    2. assemblies equipped with devices limiting the effects of internal arcing (active protection)
    3. assemblies equipped with current limiting circuitbreakers.

    These three solutions (also combined together) have found a remakable development in the industrial field and have been successfully applied by the main manufacturers of LV switchgear and controlgear assemblies.

    As it can be seen hereafter by examining the first two solutions, an “active” protection against arc faults is intrinsecally more complex than a “passive” one.

    This because of the presence of additional electromechanical/ electronic devices5 which limit the arcing effects and which, by their nature, may be subject to faults or not-tripping.
    [ABB]

    Дуга, возникшая внутри НКУ, создает внутреннее избыточное давление и вызывает локальный перегрев, что может привести к воздействию на оборудование значительного механического напряжения и перепада температур.

    Кроме того, под воздействием дуги различные материалы разлагаются на продукты, имеющие высокую температуру, в том числе газы и дым, которые почти всегда вырываются из оболочки НКУ под высоким давлением, подвергая опасности оперативный персонал.

    Европейская директива 2006/95/EC определяет основные требования безопасности для низковольтного (от 50 до 1000 В переменного тока и от 75 до 1500 В постоянного тока) оборудования поставляемого на рынок Европейского Сообщества.

    Одно из основных требований безопасности, определяемое данной директивой как наиболее важное, заключается в необходимости предпринять технические меры для предотвращения "подъема температуры, возникновения электрической дуги или излучения", которые могут причинить ущерб.

    Данная проблема всегда учитывалась при создании различных аппаратов, но незаслуженно игнорировалась при разработке электрических комплектных устройств, и только в последние 10-15 лет ей стали уделять должное внимание как в Италии, так и во всем мире.

    При возникновении электрической дуги внутри НКУ безопасность оператора и электроустановки обеспечивается тремя способами:
    1. Конструкция НКУ должна выдерживать механические воздействия, возникающие при горении электрической дуги (пассивная защита).
    2. НКУ должно быть оснащено устройствами, ограничивающими воздействие электрической дуги (активная защита)
    3. НКУ должны быть оснащены токоограничивающими автоматическими выключателями.

    Указанные три способа (применяемые совместно) получили дальнейшее развитие в промышленности и успешно применяются основными изготовителями НКУ распределения и управления.

    Как будет показано далее при рассмотрении первых двух способов, активная защита от дуговых» неисправностей является более сложной, чем пассивная защита.

    Это объясняется необходимостью использования дополнительных электромеханических или электронных устройств, задачей которых является ограничение воздействий дуги и которые сами могут оказаться неисправными и не сработать.
    [Перевод Интент]

    Тематики

    • НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)

    Синонимы

    EN

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > internal arc-proof switchgear and controlgear assemblу

  • 16 contamination

    1. контаминация
    2. инфицирование
    3. засорение
    4. загрязнение атмосферы
    5. загрязнение (в электробезопасности)
    6. загрязнение

     

    загрязнение
    Привнесение в природную или непосредственно в антропогенную среду или возникновение в ней новых, обычно не характерных для этой среды физических, химических или биологических агентов, или превышение в рассматриваемое время естественного среднемноголетнего уровня в пределах его крайних колебаний концентрации перечисленных агентов в среде, оказывающих вредное воздействие на человека, флору и фауну.
    [РД 01.120.00-КТН-228-06]

    загрязнение
    1 Директива ЕС 96/61/ЕЭС (от 24 сентября 1996 г., касающаяся единых мер предотвращения загрязнения и борьбы с ним, статья 2 (11).
    2 Объединенная группа экспертов ММО/ЮНЕСКО/ВМО/МАГАТЕ/ООН/ЮНПОС по научным аспектам изучения загрязнения морей.
    3 Конвенции о защите морской среды в районе Северо-Восточной Атлантики, Париж, 22 сентября 1992 г., статья 1, п. (d).
    d Конвенция о защите морской среды в районе Балтийского моря, 1992, (Хельсинская конвенция), статья 2, п. 1.
    [ ГОСТ Р ИСО 14050-99]

    Тематики

    EN

     

    загрязнение
    Присутствие инородного вещества: твердого, жидкого или газообразного (ионизированные газы), - которое может вызвать уменьшение диэлектрической прочности или поверхностного сопротивления.
    [ ГОСТ Р 52319-2005( МЭК 61010-1: 2001)]

    загрязнение
    Любое добавление инородных веществ, твердых, жидких или газообразных (ионизированных газов), которые могли бы уменьшить электрическую прочность изоляции или удельное сопротивление поверхности.
    [ ГОСТ Р 50030. 1-2000 ( МЭК 60947-1-99)]

    EN

    pollution
    any condition of foreign matter, solid, liquid or gaseous (ionized gases), that may affect dielectric strength or surface resistivity
    [IEC 60947-1, ed. 5.0 (2007-06)]

    pollution
    any addition of foreign matter, solid, liquid or gaseous that can produce a permanent reduction of dielectric strength or surface resistivity of the insulation
    NOTE – Ionized gases of a temporary nature are not considered as to be a pollution.
    [IEV number 442-01-28]

    contamination
    the first is defined as area and the second as particulate. The first is caused by surface contaminants that cannot be removed by cleaning or are stained after cleaning. Those may be foreign matter on the surface of, for example a localized area that is smudged, stained, discoloured, mottled, etc., or large areas exhibiting a hazy or cloudy appearance resulting from a film of foreign materials
    [IEC 62276, ed. 1.0 (2005-05)]

    FR

    pollution
    tout apport de matériau étranger solide, liquide ou gazeux (gaz ionisés) qui peut entraîner une réduction de la rigidité diélectrique ou de la résistivité de la surface
    [IEC 60947-1, ed. 5.0 (2007-06)]

    pollution
    tout apport de matériau étranger solide, liquide ou gazeux qui peut entraîner une réduction permanente de la rigidité diélectrique ou de la résistivité de surface de l'isolation
    NOTE – Les gaz ionisés de nature fugace ne sont pas considérés comme une pollution.
    [IEV number 442-01-28]


     

    Тематики

    Обобщающие термины

    EN

    DE

    FR

     

    загрязнение атмосферы
    Изменение состав атмосферы в результате наличия в ней примесей
    [ ГОСТ 17.2.1.04-77]
    Примечание
    При разработке НТД в области защиты атмосферного воздуха от антропогенного загрязнения рекомендуется применять термин "загрязнение окружающей среды" в ред. НИИ Атмосфера
    [Письмо НИИ Атмосфера № 14/33-07 от 15.01.03 г. «О терминах и определениях»]
    [Защита атмосферного воздуха от антропогенного загрязнения. Основные понятия, термины и определения (справочное пособие). Санкт-Петербург 2003 г.]

    Тематики

    EN

    DE

    • Luftverunreinigung, Vorgang

    FR

    • pollution d’air

     

    засорение
    Присутствие в товаре, месте хранения, транспортном средстве или контейнере вредных организмов или других подкарантинных материалов, не представляющее собой заражение (смотри заражение) (КЭФМ, 1997; пересмотрено КЭФМ, 1999).
    [Mеждународные стандарты по фитосанитарным мерам МСФМ № 5. Глоссарий фитосанитарных терминов]

    Тематики

    EN

    FR

     

    инфицирование
    контаминация
    —
    [Англо-русский глоссарий основных терминов по вакцинологии и иммунизации. Всемирная организация здравоохранения, 2009 г.]

    Тематики

    • вакцинология, иммунизация

    Синонимы

    EN

    загрязнение (contamination): Нежелательное внесение примесей химического или микробиологического происхождения или постороннего материала в исходный материал, промежуточный продукт или АФС в ходе производства, отбора проб, упаковки или переупаковки, хранения или транспортирования.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р 52249-2009: Правила производства и контроля качества лекарственных средств оригинал документа

    2.6 контаминация (contamination): Наличие загрязнений на оборудовании *.

    * Контаминация также может включать в себя наличие посторонних веществ.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р ЕН 12296-2009: Биотехнология. Оборудование. Методы контроля эффективности очистки

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > contamination

  • 17 pollution

    1. загрязнённость
    2. загрязнение (в электробезопасности)
    3. загрязнение

     

    загрязнение
    Привнесение в природную или непосредственно в антропогенную среду или возникновение в ней новых, обычно не характерных для этой среды физических, химических или биологических агентов, или превышение в рассматриваемое время естественного среднемноголетнего уровня в пределах его крайних колебаний концентрации перечисленных агентов в среде, оказывающих вредное воздействие на человека, флору и фауну.
    [РД 01.120.00-КТН-228-06]

    загрязнение
    1 Директива ЕС 96/61/ЕЭС (от 24 сентября 1996 г., касающаяся единых мер предотвращения загрязнения и борьбы с ним, статья 2 (11).
    2 Объединенная группа экспертов ММО/ЮНЕСКО/ВМО/МАГАТЕ/ООН/ЮНПОС по научным аспектам изучения загрязнения морей.
    3 Конвенции о защите морской среды в районе Северо-Восточной Атлантики, Париж, 22 сентября 1992 г., статья 1, п. (d).
    d Конвенция о защите морской среды в районе Балтийского моря, 1992, (Хельсинская конвенция), статья 2, п. 1.
    [ ГОСТ Р ИСО 14050-99]

    Тематики

    EN

     

    загрязнение
    Присутствие инородного вещества: твердого, жидкого или газообразного (ионизированные газы), - которое может вызвать уменьшение диэлектрической прочности или поверхностного сопротивления.
    [ ГОСТ Р 52319-2005( МЭК 61010-1: 2001)]

    загрязнение
    Любое добавление инородных веществ, твердых, жидких или газообразных (ионизированных газов), которые могли бы уменьшить электрическую прочность изоляции или удельное сопротивление поверхности.
    [ ГОСТ Р 50030. 1-2000 ( МЭК 60947-1-99)]

    EN

    pollution
    any condition of foreign matter, solid, liquid or gaseous (ionized gases), that may affect dielectric strength or surface resistivity
    [IEC 60947-1, ed. 5.0 (2007-06)]

    pollution
    any addition of foreign matter, solid, liquid or gaseous that can produce a permanent reduction of dielectric strength or surface resistivity of the insulation
    NOTE – Ionized gases of a temporary nature are not considered as to be a pollution.
    [IEV number 442-01-28]

    contamination
    the first is defined as area and the second as particulate. The first is caused by surface contaminants that cannot be removed by cleaning or are stained after cleaning. Those may be foreign matter on the surface of, for example a localized area that is smudged, stained, discoloured, mottled, etc., or large areas exhibiting a hazy or cloudy appearance resulting from a film of foreign materials
    [IEC 62276, ed. 1.0 (2005-05)]

    FR

    pollution
    tout apport de matériau étranger solide, liquide ou gazeux (gaz ionisés) qui peut entraîner une réduction de la rigidité diélectrique ou de la résistivité de la surface
    [IEC 60947-1, ed. 5.0 (2007-06)]

    pollution
    tout apport de matériau étranger solide, liquide ou gazeux qui peut entraîner une réduction permanente de la rigidité diélectrique ou de la résistivité de surface de l'isolation
    NOTE – Les gaz ionisés de nature fugace ne sont pas considérés comme une pollution.
    [IEV number 442-01-28]


     

    Тематики

    Обобщающие термины

    EN

    DE

    FR

     

    загрязнённость
    —
    [А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

    Тематики

    EN

    3.6.8 загрязнение (pollution): Любое добавление инородных веществ, твердых, жидких или газообразных, которые могли бы уменьшить электрическую прочность изоляции или ее поверхностное удельное сопротивление.

    [МЭК 60664-1, пункт 1.3.11]


    Источник: ГОСТ Р 50345-2010: Аппаратура малогабаритная электрическая. Автоматические выключатели для защиты от сверхтоков бытового и аналогичного назначения. Часть 1. Автоматические выключатели для переменного тока оригинал документа

    3.5.5 ЗАГРЯЗНЕНИЕ (POLLUTION): Присутствие любого постороннего твердого, жидкого или газообразного (ионизированные газы) материала, который может снизить электрическую прочность диэлектрика или уменьшить поверхностное сопротивление.

    Источник: ГОСТ IEC 61010-031-2011: Безопасность электрических контрольно-измерительных приборов и лабораторного оборудования. Часть 031. Требования безопасности к щупам электрическим ручным для электрических измерений и испытаний

    3.5.26 загрязнение (pollution): Любая добавка инородного вещества, твердого, жидкого или газообразного (ионизированного газа), которая может повлиять на электрическую прочность изоляции или удельное сопротивление поверхности.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р 51731-2010: Контакторы электромеханические бытового и аналогичного назначения оригинал документа

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > pollution

  • 18 work

    1) работа; труд; действие; функционирование
    3) обрабатываемая заготовка; обрабатываемая деталь; обрабатываемое изделие
    6) мн. ч. завод; фабрика; мастерские; технические сооружения; строительные работы
    7) мн. ч. работающие части механизма, подвижные органы механизма
    8) работать; обрабатывать
    9) действовать, двигаться, поворачиваться ( о подвижных частях механизмов)
    •

    work performed with materials in a smaller quantity — работа, выполненная с недостаточным использованием материалов

    work performed without the necessary diligence — работа, выполненная небрежно

    work which is not in accordance with specifications — работа, не соответствующая техническим требованиям

    work which is not in accordance with the requirements of the engineer — работа, не отвечающая требованиям инженера

    to work down — 1) осаживать ( вниз); оседать 2) обрабатывать на меньший размер

    to work in — вделывать, вмонтировать

    to work into — углубляться во что-либо, уходить внутрь

    to work off — 1) соскакивать, соскальзывать ( во время работы) 2) снимать (напр. стружку)

    to work on — действовать на что-либо, оказывать влияние на что-либо

    to work out — 1) разрабатывать (план, проект) 2) вырабатывать (что-либо) из чего-либо (напр. вытачивать, выстрагивать, выфрезеровывать) 3) выскакивать, выпадать во время работы

    to work over — обрабатывать вторично, перерабатывать, подвергать переработке

    to work upon — действовать на что-либо, оказывать влияние на что-либо

    to complete works (in the time stipulated in the contract) — завершать работы (в срок, оговорённый в контракте)

    - work executed - work in process - work of acceleration - work of deformation - work of ideal cycle - work of resistance - work on arbour - works under way - access to works - actual progress of works - amendment of the date of completion of works - amount of the executed works - applied work - asphalt work - assessment of works - auxiliary work - bank work - bargain work - beat-cob work - betterment work - black and white work - bluff work - bonus work - bosh brick work - branch work - branched work - bright work - carpenter's work - cast steel work - cessation of works - chased work - check of works - checking of works - chequer work - chequered work - cindering work - civil works - civil and erection works - clay work - clearing work - commencement of works - completed works - completion of works - concrete work - diversion work - condensing works - construction works - consumed work - continuous execution of works - contract works - cost of works - cost of uncovering works - covered-up works - date of commencement of works - date of completion of works - day-to-day work - day wage work - dead work - defective works - delay in completion of works - delayed completion of works - demolition works - description of works - design and survey works - desilting works - diaper work of bricklaying - drainage work - dredge work - dressing works - drove work - earth works - effective work - embossed work - emergency works - engineering works - erecting works - erection works - examination of works - excavation works - execution of works - expected period of works - extension of the time for completion of works - external work - face work - fascine work - field works - finely finished work - finishing work - fitter's works - flat trellis work - float work - forming work - forthcoming works - frosted rustic work - gauge work - gauged work - geologic works - geological works - grading works - gunite work - heading work - health work - hot work - hydro-meteorologic works - hydro-meteorological works - inadequate progress of works - incomplete lattice work - indicated work - inlaid work - inspection of works - installation work - intake works - irrigation works - jack works - jobbing work - joggle work - ladder work - line work - link work - locksmith's work - machine work - main works - maintenance work - management of works - maritime works - metal work - milling work - motion work - multiple lattice work - nature of works - neat work - negative work - night work - no-load work - odd works - on the site works - order of execution of works - outlet work - outstanding works - overhead works - panel work - partially completed works - part of works - paternoster work - period of works - period of execution of works - permanent works - pilot-scale work - plane frame work - planer work - pneumatic work - port work - portion of works - pottery work - precision work - preliminary works - preparatory works - pressure cementing work - programme of works - progress of works - proper execution of works - prospecting works - public works - pump works - quantity of works - rag work - R and D work - random work - range work - reclamation work - recoverable-strain work - recuperated work - reflected work - reliability of works - relief work - remedial works - repair work - repairing work - required work - research work - resumption of works - retaining works - reticulated work - right of access to works - river training works - rustic work - safety of works - schedule of works - scope of work - shaper work - sheet metal work - shift work - smith and founder work - spillway works - starting work - step-by-step check of works - step-by-step checking of works - stick and rag work - stoppage of works - subcontract works - submarine work - substituted works - sufficiency of works - supervision for works - supervision for of works - survey work - survey and research works - suspension of works - taking over of works - task work - temporary work - test work - test-hole work - three-coat work - through-carved work - time for completion of works - timely completion of works - tool work - topiary work - topographic works - topographical works - track work - treatment works - trellis work - trench work - trestle work - turning work - uncompleted works - uncovering of works - upon completion of works - variations in works - variations of works - volume of works - wiring work - X-ray work
    * * *
    1.   работа
    2.   изделие
    3.   обработка
    4.   возводимый объект (строительства) ( по подрядному договору); конструкция, сооружение
    5.   работа, мощность
    6.   pl сооружение, сооружения
    7.   pl завод, фабрика, мастерские

    work above ground — наземные работы ( в отличие от подземных и подводных); работы, производимые на поверхности земли

    work below ground ( level) — подземные работы

    work carried out on site — работы, выполненные на стройплощадке

    work done in sections — работа, выполненная отдельными секциями [частями]

    work in open excavations — работы в открытых выемках [горных выработках]

    work in progress — (строительные) работы в стадии выполнения, выполняемые [производимые] (строительные) работы; объект в стадии строительства

    work in water — работы, производимые в воде [под водой]

    work near water — работы, производимые близ водоёмов или рек

    work on schedule — работы в процессе выполнения ( по графику); работы, предусмотренные планом [графиком]

    - work of deformation
    - work of external forces
    - work of internal forces
    - above-ground works
    - additional work
    - agricultural works
    - alteration work
    - ashlar work
    - auxiliary work
    - avalanche baffle works
    - axed work
    - backfill work
    - backing masonry work
    - bag work
    - bench work
    - block work
    - brewery works
    - brick work
    - broken-color work
    - brush work
    - building work
    - building site works
    - carcass work
    - carpenter's work
    - cement works
    - chemical production works
    - civil engineering work
    - coast protection works
    - cob work
    - completed work
    - complicated building work
    - concrete work
    - concrete block masonry work
    - concrete masonry work
    - constructional work
    - construction work
    - continuous shift work
    - contract work
    - coursed work
    - crib work
    - day work
    - dead work
    - defective work
    - defence works
    - deformation work
    - demolition work
    - development work
    - diver's works
    - diversion works
    - donkey work
    - drainage works
    - earth work
    - earth-moving work
    - elastic work of a material
    - electric work
    - electricity production works
    - emergency work
    - enclosed construction works
    - engineering works
    - erection work
    - erosion protection works
    - excavation works
    - experimental work
    - external work
    - extra work
    - facing work
    - factory work
    - fascine work
    - finishing work
    - finish work
    - floating construction works
    - flood-control works
    - flood-protection works
    - floor work
    - floor-and-wall tiling work
    - floor covering work
    - food industry production work
    - foundation work
    - funerary works
    - further day's work
    - gas works
    - gauged work
    - glazed work
    - glazier's work
    - half-plain work
    - hammered work
    - hand work
    - handy work
    - heat insulation work
    - heavy work
    - highly mechanized work
    - hot work
    - in-fill masonry work
    - innovative construction work
    - insulating work
    - intake works
    - internal work in the system
    - ironmongery work
    - joinery work
    - land retention works
    - landslide protection works
    - loading works
    - manual work
    - marine works
    - metallurgical processing works
    - night work
    - nonconforming work
    - office work
    - off-the-site work
    - one-coat work
    - open-air intake works
    - open construction works
    - ornamental works
    - ornate work
    - outlet works
    - overhang work
    - overhead work
    - permanent works up to ground level
    - petroleum extraction works
    - piece work
    - pitched work
    - plaster work
    - plumbing work
    - power production works
    - precast works
    - production works
    - promotion work
    - protection works
    - protective works
    - public works
    - random ashlar work
    - refurbishment work
    - refuse disposal works
    - refuse incineration works
    - regulation works
    - reinforced concrete work
    - research work
    - reticulated work
    - road transport works
    - roof tiling work
    - rubble ashlar masonry work
    - sanitary works
    - sea defence works
    - sediment exclusion works
    - sewage disposal works
    - single construction works
    - smillage-axed work
    - solid plaster work
    - steel construction works
    - steel works
    - steel plate work
    - structural restoration work
    - surface transport works
    - temporary works
    - textile work
    - three-coat work
    - tiling work
    - training works
    - transport works
    - treatment works
    - two-coat work
    - underground work
    - underwater work
    - unloading works
    - vermiculated work
    - virtual work
    - waste disposal works
    - water works
    - water treatment works

    Англо-русский строительный словарь > work

  • 19 Art

       Portugal did not produce an artist of sufficient ability to gain recognition outside the country until the 19th century. Domingos Antônio Segueira (1768-1837) became well known in Europe for his allegorical religious and historical paintings in a neoclassical style. Portuguese painting during the 19th century emphasized naturalism and did not keep abreast of artistic innovations being made in other European countries. Portugal's best painters lived abroad especially in France. The most successful was Amadeo Souza- Cardoso who, while living in Paris, worked with the modernists Modigliani, Georges Braque, and Juan Gris. Souza-Cardoso introduced modernism into Portuguese painting in the early 20th century. A sustained modernist movement did not develop in Portugal, however. Naturalism remained the dominant school, and Portugal remained isolated from international artistic trends, owing to Portugal's conservative artistic climate, which prevented new forms of art from taking root, and the lack of support from an artistically sophisticated, art-buying elite supported by a system of galleries and foundations.
       Interestingly, it was during the conservative Estado Novo that modernism began to take root in Portugal. As Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar's secretary for national propaganda, Antônio Ferro, a writer, journalist, and cultural leader who admired Mussolini, encouraged the government to allow modern artists to create the heroic imagery of the Estado Novo following the Italian model that linked fascism with futurism. The most important Portuguese artist of this period was Almada Negreiros, who did the murals on the walls of the legendary café A Brasileira in the Chiado district of Lisbon, the paintings at the Exposition of the Portuguese World (1940), and murals at the Lisbon docks. Other artists of note during this period included Mário Eloy (1900-51), who was trained in Germany and influenced by George Grosz and Otto Dix; Domingos Alvarez (1906-42); and Antônio Pedro (1909-66).
       During the 1950s, the Estado Novo ceased to encourage artists to collaborate, as Portuguese artists became more critical of the regime. The return to Portugal of Antônio Pedro in 1947 led to the emergence of a school of geometric abstract painting in Oporto and the reawakening of surrealism. The art deco styles of the 1930s gave way to surrealism and abstract expression.
       In the 1960s, links between Portugal's artistic community and the international art world strengthened. Conscription for the wars against the nationalist insurgencies in Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea- Bissau (1961-75) resulted in a massive exodus of Portugal's avante-garde artists to Europe to avoid military service. While abroad, artists such as Joaquin Rodrigo (1912-93), Paula Rego (1935-), João Cutileiro (1947-), and others forged links with British, French, Italian, and Spanish artistic communities.
       The Revolution of 25 April 1974 created a crisis for Portugal's artists. The market for works of art collapsed as left-wing governments, claiming that they had more important things to do (eliminate poverty, improve education), withdrew support for the arts. Artists declared their talents to be at the "service of the people," and a brief period of socialist realism prevailed. With the return of political stability and moderate governments during the 1980s, Portugal's commercial art scene revived, and a new period of creativity began. Disenchantment with the socialist realism (utopianism) of the Revolution and a deepening of individualism began to be expressed by Portuguese artists. Investment in the arts became a means of demonstrating one's wealth and social status, and an unprecedented number of art galleries opened, art auctions were held, and a new generation of artists became internationally recognized. In 1984, a museum of modern art was built by the Gulbenkian Foundation adjacent to its offices on the Avenida de Berna in Lisbon. A national museum of modern art was finally built in Oporto in 1988.
       In the 1980s, Portugal's new generation of painters blended post-conceptualism and subjectivism, as well as a tendency toward decon-structionism/reconstructionism, in their work. Artists such as Cabrita Reis (1956-), Pedro Calapez (1953-), José Pedro Croft (1957-), Rui Sanches (1955-), and José de Guimarães (1949-) gained international recognition during this period. Guimarães crosses African art themes with Western art; Sarmento invokes images of film, culture, photography, American erotica, and pulp fiction toward sex, violence, and pleasure; Reis evolved from a painter to a maker of installation artist using chipboard, plaster, cloth, glass, and electrical and plumbing materials.
       From the end of the 20th century and during the early years of the 21st century, Portugal's art scene has been in a state of crisis brought on by a declining art trade and a withdrawal of financial support by conservative governments. Although not as serious as the collapse of the 1970s, the current situation has divided the Portuguese artistic community between those, such as Cerveira Pito and Leonel Moura, who advocate a return to using primitive, strongly textured techniques and others such as João Paulo Feliciano (1963-), who paint constructivist works that poke fun at the relationship between art, money, society, and the creative process. Thus, at the beginning of the 21st century, the factors that have prevented Portuguese art from achieving and sustaining international recognition (the absence of a strong art market, depending too much on official state support, and the individualistic nature of Portuguese art production) are still to be overcome.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Art

  • 20 Castner, Hamilton Young

    SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology
    [br]
    b. 11 September 1858 Brooklyn, New York, USA
    d. 11 October 1899 Saranoe Lake, New York, USA
    [br]
    American chemist, inventor of the electrolytic production of sodium.
    [br]
    Around 1850, the exciting new metal aluminium began to be produced by the process developed by Sainte-Claire Deville. However, it remained expensive on account of the high cost of one of the raw materials, sodium. It was another thirty years before Castner became the first to work successfully the process for producing sodium, which consisted of heating sodium hydroxide with charcoal at a high temperature. Unable to interest American backers in the process, Castner took it to England and set up a plant at Oldbury, near Birmingham. At the moment he achieved commercial success, however, the demand for cheap sodium plummeted as a result of the development of the electrolytic process for producing aluminium. He therefore sought other uses for cheap sodium, first converting it to sodium peroxide, a bleaching agent much used in the straw-hat industry. Much more importantly, Castner persuaded the gold industry to use sodium instead of potassium cyanide in the refining of gold. With the "gold rush", he established a large market in Australia, the USA, South Africa and elsewhere, but the problem was to meet the demand, so Castner turned to the electrolytic method. At first progress was slow because of the impure nature of the sodium hydroxide, so he used a mercury cathode, with which the released sodium formed an amalgam. It then reacted with water in a separate compartment in the cell to form sodium hydroxide of a purity hitherto unknown in the alkali industry; chlorine was a valuable by-product.
    In 1894 Castner began to seek international patents for the cell, but found he had been anticipated in Germany by Kellner, an Austrian chemist. Preferring negotiation to legal confrontation, Castner exchanged patents and processes with Kellner, although the latter's had been less successful. The cell became known as the Castner-Kellner cell, but the process needed cheap electricity and salt, neither of which was available near Oldbury, so he set up the Castner-Kellner Alkali Company works at Runcorn in Cheshire; at the same time, a pilot plant was set up in the USA at Saltville, Virginia, with a larger plant being established at Niagara Falls.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    A.Fleck, 1947, "The life and work of Hamilton Young Castner" (Castner Memorial Lecture), Chemistry and Industry 44:515-; Fifty Years of Progress: The Story of the Castner-Kellner Company, 1947.
    T.K.Derry and T.I.Williams, 1960, A Short History of Technology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 549–50 (provides a summary of his work).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Castner, Hamilton Young

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